Presentations

1. Fear for speaking in public
2. The audience
3. Types of presentations
4. The subject of the presentation
5. The structure of the presentation
6. Cue cards and visual aids
7. Practice, body language, voice
8. The question and answer session

1. Fear for speaking in public

Many people are afraid of speaking for an audience. Most speakers have two kinds of fears: fears about the audience and fears about themselves. Some examples:

Fears about the audience:

• they will interrupt me, which will confuse me
• they will ask difficult questions
• they will see that I am fearful
• they will hear my mistakes
• they will not understand what I mean
• they will dislike me

Fears about themselves:

• I failed before and will probably fail again

• I do not have the necessary skills
• I will make mistakes
• I will forget what I wanted to say
• I will not be able to bring out a single word
• I will be very nervous

If your fears are in this list you should feel relieved already. It means that your fears are very common and that most speakers share your fears. The audience will not notice your fears better than you were able to notice them in speakers you have listened to. The following points may help you to overcome your fears.

War!

Many speakers feel that the audience is the enemy and doing a presentation is like going to war. You should be aware that nearly always the audience is friendly and wants to help you rather then condemn you. They want you to succeed because they are aware of the difficulties of speaking in public.

5%

Around 5% of the audience will not like you or your speech no matter how well you perform. This is related to the fact that 5% of the people you meet in life will dislike you, no matter how kind you are. Just accept it and don't worry about it.

Stress

To some extend stress is good. Stress guarantees that you are alert. That is why you feel stressed when you play complex computer games or drive fast. If a Formula 1 driver were not stressed he would never win. The trick is to control stress. Some advice:

• accept your body's reaction as normal
• try to relax your body; take some deep breaths
• move hands, arms, feet
• if you feel extreme stress; realise that this must be what President Clinton felt when he had to admit publicly that he had had an affair with Ms Lewinski. Still, he looked calm and confident.

Rational

Be aware that many fears are not rational. An irrational fear is often a fear for fear itself. Try to break the vicious circle by rationalising your emotions.

Black out

Many speakers have experienced a black out to some extent. Some strategies to fight black out:

• Stop and admit you have a black out. Pause. Then think back to the point you discussed before the black out and start again from there. If that does not work:
• Look at material that you have; cue-cards, transparencies, notes. If that does not work:
• Ask the audience where you were. If that does not work:
• Skip the point you were going to discuss and continue with the next point. If that does not work:
• Make a joke (which you prepared in advance). For example: "if you don't know what's happening, don't worry. Neither do I"

6 step method

If, after reading the remarks above, you still have fears for speaking in public try the 6 steps method below.

1. face your fear and investigate the nature of it; is it realistic?; what is the cause?
2. remove fear and increase confidence
3. take a positive attitude; consider errors as learning experiences
4. prepare thoroughly
5. imagine yourself succeeding
6. do not have the 'wait and see' attitude; take control over the situation by anticipating things that may go wrong.

Assignment: Fears

Write down at least 3 fears that you have about speaking in public. Analyse your fears by answering the following questions:

a. What is the nature of the fear?

b. Is it a realistic fear? Why (not)?

c. What is the cause of the fear?

d. How can you remove the cause of the fear?

e. What will you do to remove that fear? (be as explicit as possible)

2. The audience

Start by determining general facts about the audience, such as size, sex and age. Determine what the audience is interested in, for example their political persuasion, and what they already know about those subjects. Find out in advance whether you are expected to answer questions. If so, anticipate on that by thinking in advance of questions that may be asked.

The members of the audience have a specific purpose. They are not present by chance. Bear in mind that they expect something from you and try to fulfil that expectation. Do not only explain what you think is important but also what they are interested in.

Also realise what the occasion is; formal occasions need a formal speech, celebrations call for an informal approach.

Assignment: Audiences

Think of four different audiences you could do a presentation More Power for Consumer Organisations for. Determine whether you think it is an easy or a difficult audience for you. Also explain why.

3. Types of presentations

Presentations must have a clear and realistic purpose. The purpose of your presentation indicates how you want to achieve the aim of your presentation.

The purpose can be: to describe, to instruct, to persuade or to entertain.

Describe

In this type of presentation the aim is usually to give information or explain a situation. The contents is often rather general and factual. When the speech is over the audience should have knowledge that they did not have before thsy started listening.

Instruct

In this type of presentation the aim is to teach the audience knowledge and skills. After the presentation the listener should be able to do something he did not know how to do.

Persuade

In this type of presentation the aim is to stimulate people to do something. After the presentation you want the listener to believe something he did not believe before he started listening.

Entertain

In this type of presentation the aim is to entertain people. The aim of this type of presentation is mostly to make the audience feel happy, but there may be hidden goals. For example to reveal important truths or move ideas forward. Crucial element in this type is humour. For most people it is very difficult to give a humorous presentation because the humour is not spontaneous.

Assignment: Types of presentations

Imagine you are a committee investigating the consequences of the privatisation of a healthcare clinic. You have to do four presentations for the following audiences:

• a group of doctors who work in the clinic
• a group of worried patients
• a group of information technology experts who have to adapt the computer network
• a group of students who do a project on privatisation

Indicate which type of presentation should be used and why.

4. The subject of the presentation

As was mentioned above, an important factor which should determine the subject that you choose is the expectations of the audience. If the audience is interested, they will pay attention. If they are not interested you will lose attention and they may start talking instead of listening.

Some advice on selecting a topic:

• take a subject that you are familiar with or (even better) expert at.
• take a subject that is current
• take a subject about which you have a clear opinion
• take a subject that is not too simple or too complex. By choosing a simple subject you often make it difficult for yourself; there is not much to say about a simple subject and simple subjects are often not very interesting
• take a subject that is not too general or too specific. So don't try to do a presentation on the economy of the United States in 15 minutes. General subjects should be narrowed down. (e.g. the economy of the United States during the second term of president Clinton)

If you are expected to provoke or guide a discussion after your presentation it is a good idea to take a controversial subject, so that you are sure that there are different opinions in the audience.

After you have decided on the subject you should start collecting material. Some suggestions:

• Go to the public library or the university library and go through the magazine racks.
• Look at the bibliography of a book or an article on a subject that you like. Trace the works mentioned there in the library.
• Look for information on the internet using search engines. For example http://www.altavista.digital.com, http://www.infoseek.com 
• Look on the internet and use the links pages with resources for students.

Read through the material and make notes. When you have collected more material than you can put in the presentation, your subject is probably too broad. You should avoid speaking about statements which are too general. Instead, it is better to focus on a part of the subject that you had in mind. So, select focal points. For example, do not write about the future of television, but rather on the economic future of America's main cable network companies.

Assignment: Choosing the right subject

Imagine you have to hold a presentation of 20 minutes for laymen. Study the following titles and determine what is wrong with them. Also right down an alternative title which would be suitable if you can.

• The entertainment industry
• The internet
• How to FTP HTML documents
• Effects of the Euro on the GNP.
• TV commercials

5. The structure of the presentation

The elements of a good presentation are: introduction, body and conclusion.

The introduction

In the introduction you should make clear to the audience what you are going to talk about and why your presentation is worth listening to. Therefore, the introduction should:

• introduce yourself (if the audience does not know you)
• provide impact; catch the attention of the audience. Sometimes it is a good idea to start with an anecdote, an illustration, a question, a quotation or a humorous remark. You can also have a look at opening sentences of newspaper articles; they are also often written to provide impact.
• indicate the aim of the presentation. By explaining the aim of the presentation you also indicate the relevance of it for the audience.
• indicate the main topics of the presentation. Using a transparency with the structure of your presentation will help the audience to get a clear picture of what you are going to discuss.

The body

In the body you discuss the main ideas of your presentation. The ideas should be supported by facts, illustrations and/or claims. The topics discussed in the body should be organised in a logical way. Some examples:

• Chronological order. Starting with the oldest event and ending with the most recent.
• Spatial order. Discussing one topic in different places. For example: unemployment in the East and the West.
• Cause and effect. Describe cause and effect of something. Especially suitable when you want to explain why something happened. For example: the causes of a disaster, the effects of a measure.
• Problem and solution. Offers a solution for a problem. For example: how a new product solves the problem of unremovable stains.
• Sequential order (step by step). This order is related to chronological order. It explains the steps in a process.
• General to specific. Starts with a general picture and then moves on to a detail. For example: a general overview of the company structure followed by an explanation of the function of the Sales Department.
• Specific to general. Starts with a detail and puts it in a more general context.
• Magnitude. Starts with something small and familiar then moves on to something larger and less familiar.

After you have decided on the order of the topics you should make a framework in which you order the topics into main points and minor points.

An example of the structure of the body of a presentation:

The conclusion

In the conclusion you should either summarise the main points of your presentation or put what you have said in a certain perspective. For example; you can let the audience choose between 2 options for the future, you can end with your own opinion or somebody else's opinion (quotation). You should not add new facts to your presentation in the conclusion. After the summary or interpretation you should thank the audience and close the presentation. If there is a question - answer session, you should open the question and answer session.

A common mistake with conclusions is that the speaker gives a brief summary and then walks away saying "that's it" or something similar. You should take time to round off your presentation. Use a phrase like "With this I would like to conclude my presentation."

Assignment: Introduction

Look at the Hewlett Packard example above and write an introduction in which you:

• introduce yourself
• provide impact
• explain the aim
• indicate the main topics

Assignment: Ordering topics

Look at the Hewlett Packard example above and write down which order is used.

Assignment: Conclusion

Imagine you have to hold a presentation on the pros and cons of the European Union for an audience of fellow students. Think of three different conclusions and write them out.

6. Cue cards and visual aids

After you have worked out the contents of the presentation you should prepare cue cards and visual aids. After that you can start practising.

Cue cards

Writing out the complete presentation and then read it to the audience is time gives the audience the impression they are wasting their time. They will wonder why you did not copy it and hand it out. On the other hand, writing out your speech will help you to remember what you want to say. Some advice: if you want to write out the entire speech do so, but do not use it during the presentation. Put the sheets in a place where you cannot read them (your back pocket) and only fetch them if you have a black out.

If you want to take measures to help you remember what you want to say, use cue-cards. Write only keywords on the cue cards and use one card per topic. Regular postcards are convenient; they are small enough to be handy and large enough to be readable.

Visual aids

Visual aids should be used to

• show the outline of the presentation (the main points)
• show what something looks like
• visualise numbers (in graphs and charts)
• emphasise information
• add interest to the presentation

There are different types of visual aids:

• Objects (to be demonstrated). Objects are mainly used when the speaker wants to show how something works. Make sure that the object can be seen in the back.
• Flip charts. Flip charts are mainly used to emphasise information or show graphs and drawings. They are mainly used for smaller audiences (<40)
• Overhead projectors. The projector is used for the same reasons as the flip chart. Make sure you use type written (font >16 points) or photocopied transparencies. Use a pencil to point at something on the transparency itself (do not point at the screen). The overhead projector is used for audiences between 15 - 70 people.
• Slide projectors. The function is similar to the function of flip charts and the overhead projector. Be aware that the order of the slides cannot be changed. These are mainly used for large audiences (>60)
• Video. Using video is risky because it takes a lot of preparation and many things can go wrong. Only use it when it is the only suitable visual aid. Video is often used to illustrate human behaviour.
• Handouts. Handouts mostly contain detailed information which could not be mentioned during the presentation. For example: a bibliography. Handouts should be handed out at the end of the presentation.

When you design your visual aids, keep the following points in mind:

• one visual aid should contain one idea
• use key words
• use simple, clear words
• use numbers sparingly; use a graph or chart if possible
• round off numbers if possible
• use no more than 6 lines of text on one visual
• do not use too many visuals
• be aware of implicit meaning of colours (red = stop or danger, green = go or environment)
• check the spelling

Assignment: visual aids

Imagine you have to hold a presentation on tourism in the UK. One topic of the presentation is statistics. Prepare a short presentation of that topic based on the information below. Prepare the speech and the visual aids. You do not have to make an introduction and conclusion. You need not use all the information.

Source: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/stats/ukinfigs/travel.htm

7. Practice, body language, voice

Practice

Rehearsing the presentation will help you to get the information in your memory. The secret of remembering is repetition. Rehearsing will be most effective if you try to imitate the circumstances under which you have to do the presentation as realistically as possible, so:

• Prepare audibly. Preferably record yourself on tape or video. It allows you to look at yourself as if you were in the audience. Its also enables you to evaluate your language. You should use simple, clear words and short sentences whenever possible.
• Prepare critically. Do not assume that certain parts of your presentation do not need practising. Be thorough and critical to yourself.
• Prepare repeatedly.
• Prepare visibly. Some people like to rehearse before an audience or a mirror, some people don't. Try both and do whatever suits you best. If you prepare visibly you can also evaluate your body language.

If you do not know how to pronounce certain words, look them up in a dictionary and practice the pronunciation.

Body language

During the rehearsal, do not only pay attention to the contents of the presentation but also to your body language. Effective movements will contribute to the quality of your presentation. Irrelevant movements will distract the attention. So do not lean on the lectern all the time and do not play with pens or keys.

Your facial expression is probably the most important visual aid. It is important that your facial expression matches the emotions of the contents of your speech. If you are enthusiastic about what you are telling the audience, let your face show your enthusiasm. If you are talking about a tragic event, look seriously.

Eye contact with the audience is also important. Try to have eye contact with the audience at least 50% of the time. Do not look at one person for more than a few seconds; it is mostly felt as an act of aggression.

Voice

A calm voice implies confidence. So try to speak calmly. Be aware of it that many speakers tend to speak faster when they are nervous. During many presentations the speakers speaks too fast, but hardly anyone ever speaks too slowly. If you know that you are a fast speaker, pause occasionally and say "slow down, slow down" to yourself.

Try to vary the intonation, articulate clearly and pause regularly. It will make your speech clearer.

Assignment: key to phonetic symbols

Study the key to phonetic symbols in your dictionary. Write down three words containing following sound, underline the letter.

æ

u:

i:

Assignment: Pronouncing difficult words

Look up the following words in your dictionary and find out how they should be pronounced, using the phonetic symbols.

• executive
• vouchers
• miscellaneous
• cough
• admirable
• antipodes
• clerk
• gauge
• recipe
• preface

8. The question and answer session

When you know in advance that there will be an opportunity for the audience to ask questions, try to anticipate. Think in advance of questions that may be asked and prepare answers. The following situations may occur in a question-answer session:

• you don't know the answer to a question

First give yourself time to think. If you still do not know the answer, admit that you do not know the answer and say that you will look it up after the presentation or that you will meet the person who asked the question after the presentation.

• you gave the wrong facts during your presentation

Admit you were wrong and thank the questioner for pointing out the mistake.

• the questioner keeps confronting you with new arguments

Do not duel with one person in the audience; you will lose the attention of the rest of the audience. Indicate that you have different opinions and show that you respect the opinion of the questioner.

• the questioner bullies you

If a questioner asks questions in an aggressive manner, keep calm. Be aware of the fact that the audience will condemn his/her behaviour. Indicate that you are willing to discuss the matter with the questioner after the presentation.

Assignment: One minute presentation

Prepare a one minute presentation about one of the following subjects:

• Copying CDs / CD ROMSs
• Cloning humans
• Pizzas and soaps

You may limit or adapt the subject. Your presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion. Also think of three questions that you expect to be asked after your presentation.

© Arnoud Thuss, 1999
More information: see copyright notice